Design and Detailing for
Toxic Chemical Reduction in Buildings

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A Definitions
B Acronyms
C References
D Further Reading
E Useful Contacts
F Specification Notes
G Acknowledgements and Disclaimer
 

Appendix A Definitions

This guide focuses on the design of appropriate detailing for minimising toxic loads of building projects based on Scottish building practice and climate.

Allergy - A condition in which the body has an exaggerated response to a substance (eg food or drug). Also known as hypersensitivity.

Allergy Trigger - The substances that trigger allergy are called allergen. Examples include pollens, dust mite, moulds, danders, and certain foods.

Building Related Ill-Health –A combination of ailments associated with people’s place of work or home, also often referred to as Sick Building Syndrome. A 1984 WHO report suggested up to 30% new & refurbished buildings worldwide may give rise to ill-health.

Chemical Pollutants – Pollutants presenting a hazard to health and the environment of natural or synthetic origin, essentially chemical in nature.

Chemical mutagens - Agents that may give rise to mutations resulting in an increase in the incidence of congenital defects in future generations.

Dander – Tiny scales shed from human or animal hair or skin. Dander floats in air & settles on surfaces. Cat dander is a significant contributor to allergic reactions.

Ecological Footprint - Estimate of the area of Earth’s productive land/water required to supply the resources an individual or group demands, and absorb their wastes. By calculaties extent a person uses more/ less than their fair share of world resources.69

PCB - Polychlorinated biphenyls - a class of commercially produced organic chemicals which were developed in the 1930s and were mainly used in the electricity supply industry and mining. They have been proven to be toxic to both humans and animals.

Toxicity - A physiological or biological property that enables a chemical to do harm, or create injury, to a living organism by other than mechanical means; or the ability of a chemical to cause poisoning when the chemical is administered to a living organism.

Toxic Release Inventory - A US database of toxic releases. Manufacturers must report annually the amounts of almost 350 toxic chemicals and 22 chemical categories that they release directly to air, water, or land, inject underground, or transfer to off-site facilities. EPA supplies information to the public under the “Community Right-to-Know” law.

Reclamation and reclaimed - material is set aside from the waste stream for future reuse with minimal processing.

Reuse - the use of reclaimed materials for their original purpose.

Recycling and recycled - the manufacture of a new product using reclaimed materials, scrap or waste as feedstock.

Synthetic - substance formed by a chemical process or chemical change from substance extracted from naturally occurring plant, animal, or mineral sources. The term does not apply to substances created by naturally occurring biological processes.
 

Appendix B Acronyms

AECB – Association of Environment Conscious Builders
ASA - Advertising Standards Agency
BSI – British Standards Institute
BPEO - Best Practical Environmental Option
BRE - Building Research Establishment
CEN - European Committee for Standardisation
CFCs – chlorofluorocarbon
CIBSE - Chartered Institute of Building Service Engineers
CIRIA - Construction Industry Research and Information Association
CKB -
CPA Construction Products Association
CPD - Construction Products Directive
DEFRA – Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.
EC - European Community
ECOHB - The European + Global Network of Organisations for Environmentally-Conscious and Healthy Building
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
EPD – Environmental Product Declarations
ETA - European Technical Approvals
EU - European Union
HBN – Healthy Buildings Network
HCFCs – hydrochlorofluorocarbon
HSE – Health and Safety Executive
HVAC - Heating, Ventilation, & Air Conditioning
IAQ - Indoor Air Quality
IBN – Institute of Building Biology
ISO – International Standards Organisation
LCA – Life Cycle Analysis
M&E - Mechanical and Electrical (services)
NBS - National Building Specification
NBT - 
Natural Building Technologies
NGO - Non-governmental Organisation
NGS – National Green Specification
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
ODPM - Office of the Deputy Prime Minister
OSB - Oriented Strand Board
OSC - Off site construction
PCBs – Polychlorinated biphenyls
PE - Polyethylene
PP - Polypropylene
PTFE - Polytetrafluoroethylene
PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride
REACH - Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals
RCEP – Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
RIAS - Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland
RIBA - Royal Institute of British Architects
SBS - Sick building syndrome
SEDA - Scottish Ecological Design Association
SEPA - Scottish Environmental Protection Agency
TBS - Tight building syndrome
VOC – Volatile Organic Compounds
WEEE - EC Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)
WHO - World Health Organisation
WWF – World Wildlife Fund
 

Appendix C Main References

Abramson M., et al (1991) Ambient Air Pollution and respiratory disease Med J Aust 154 543-551

Andersson, Åse., (2002) Harmful compounds in paint leached from wooden facades, The 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Building, Oslo 2002

Andersson, Åse., (2002) Long-term leaching of environmentally hazardous substances in admixtures, emitted from concrete, The 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Building, Oslo 2002

Andrae S., et al (1988) Symptoms of bronchial hyper-reactivity and asthma in relation to environmental factors Arch Dis Child 63 473-478

Berge, B. (2000) The Ecology of Building Materials, Architectural Press, Oxford. Generally regarded as Architects’ main source of robust information. Deals with materials rather than products and avoids conflict with individual manufacturers.

Bordass, B. (2000) Cost and value: fact and fiction, Building Research & Information Volume 28, Issue September 2000

Carson. R (1962) Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
Everybody’s original source. It is impossible to read a book on the topics of environmental pollution without this ubiquitous, meticulous and mould breaking piece of work from a victim of environmental pollution.

Christensen, N.T. et al. (2002) Harmful substances in building waste in the future – inventory and prediction of twelve substances. The 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Building, Oslo

Gaia Research and Gaia Architects (2005) Affordable Low Allergy Housing – A Guidance Note, Gaia Research, Edinburgh ISBN 1-904-680-18-6
The summary of the study.

Halliday S.P, Chapman B, Jones P and Liddell H.L. (2005) Affordable Low Allergy Housing, Gaia Research, Edinburgh ISBN 1-904-680-17-8
Development of an affordable low allergy building specification that avoids, where possible, known and suspected allergens and minimises the conditions in which they can have an adverse impact. The project aimed to raise the profile of breathing related disability to a level where it is given the same importance in building design as is presently the case for access for the physically disadvantaged.

Halliday S.P and Stevenson F.B.A. (2004) Sustainable Construction and the Regulatory Framework, Gaia Research, Edinburgh ISBN 1-904680-19-4
Thinkpiece on the Scottish Regulatory framework in the light of the Building (Scotland) Act 2003, where sustainable development became a fundamental requirement.

Healthy Building Network. Target Materials: Overview.
Information on materials to avoid and products commonly made from them. Chlorine based, PBT and heavy metals are focus. Also suggests avoidance of Formaldehyde, other VOCs and Pthalates because they have an effect on the indoor air quality.
www.healthybuilding.net/target_materials.html

Jaakkola, J.J., Verkasalo, P.K. and Jaakkola, N., (2000) Plastic wall materials in the home and respiratory health in young children. American Journal of Public Health; Vol. 90 pp. 797-799

Lynge, E., Anttila, A. and Hemminki, K., (1997) Organic solvents and cancer. Cancer Causes Control, The Harvard-Teikyo Program Special Issue, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 406-419

National Office of Building Technology and Administration, Norway, Guidelines to the Technical Regulations under the Planning and Building Act (1997) (English version available from: www.be.no/beweb/english/englishtop.html)

Pohlabeln, H., Jöckel, K.H., Brüske-Hohlfeld, I., Möhner, M., Ahrens, W., Bolm-Audorff, U., Arhelger, R.; Römer, W., Kreienbrock, L., Kreuzer, M., Jahn, I., Wichmann, H.E., (2000). Lung cancer and exposure to man-made vitreous fibers: results from a pooled case-control study in Germany. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, Vol. 37 Issue 5 pp. 469 - 477

PVC in Buildings: Hazards and Alternatives. www.healthybuilding.net
Concise fact-sheet on risks posed by PVC and alternatives to common PVC products.

Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (2003) Chemicals in Products TSO (The Stationery Office). A very important source. It does not pull its punches and sets alarm bells running as to the enormity of the problem – the immense lack of testing and identification of what has not been put in place by government. It invokes, therefore, the precautionary principle as the only reasonable response.

Rumchev, K.B., Spickett, J.T., Bulsara, M.K., Phillips M.R., and Stick, S.M., (2001), Domestic exposure to formaldehyde significantly increases the risk of asthma in young children, European Respiratory Journal Vol. 20 pp. 403-408

Steingraber. S. (1997) Living Downstream Virago Press, London
Starts out where Rachel Carson left off and attacks the recidivist chemical industry, which has regained a foothold since ‘Silent Spring’ and which for many years was subject to non requirement for declaration of hazards due to ongoing wartime secrecy legislation not being lifted. Very readable, but mainly concentrates on carcinogens.

Wantke, F., Demmer, C.M., Tappler, P., Gotz, M., Jarisch, R., (1996) Exposure to gaseous formaldehyde induces IgE-mediated sensitization to formaldehyde in school-children, Clinical & Experimental Allergy, Vol. 26 Issue 3 pp. 276-280

William F.J., (2000), Health and Productivity Gains from Better Indoor Environments and Their Relationship with Building Efficiency, Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, Vol. 25 pp. 537-566

Appendix D Additional Background Reading

Anderson J., Shiers D (2002) The Green Guide to Specification, Blackwell, Oxford

British Medical Association (1991) Hazardous Waste & Human Health, Oxford University Press. Significantly this book by the BMA links exposure to toxic waste with ill health. It traces the growth of the problem and identifies the nature of the risks. It also addresses the issue of safe recycling. (“It is the ironic role of today’s science and technology to mitigate the damage caused by the unthinking disposal of the toxic wastes created by yesterday’s science and technology” Skinner & Bassin 1988.)

Chao CY et al Feasibility Study of an Indoor Air Quality Measurement Protocol on 12 parameters in Mechanically Ventilated and Air Conditioned Buildings, Indoor + Built Environment Jan Feb 2001

Costner, Pat, Beverley Thorpe and Alexandra McPherson. (2005) Sick of Dust. Chemicals in Common Products – A Needless Health Risk in Our Homes. NY: Clean Production Action. This report uses the analysis of dust collected from 10 homes in each of 7 states in the USA to assess the types and levels of hazardous chemicals present in the homes. The tested for several specific chemicals in each of the following classes; Brominated diphenyl ethers (used as fire retardants), Phthalates (plasticizers in PVC), Organotin Compounds (stabiliser in PVC), Alkylphenols (cleaners and cosmetics), Perfluorinated Organics – PFOA/PFOS - (used in stain-resistant materials) and Pesticides (often used in and around homes and impregnated into products). The report suggests the phasing out of hazardous chemicals from use and also suggests actions that the general public can take to reduce the toxics in their homes.

Crump D., et al A protocol for the assessment of indoor air quality in homes and office buildings BRE 2002

Coward SKD et al Indoor Air Quality in Homes in England BRE 2000

Fanger O.L (1998) Hidden Olfs in Sick Buildings ASHRAE Journal

Francis. B.M. (1994) Toxic Substances in the Environment, John Wiley & sons Chichester. A serious textbook on all aspects of toxicology – from Environmental Chemistry to Environmental Toxicology to Ecology. Very thorough and based on the fact that “without understanding the scientific underpinning of the headlines one cannot judge the magnitude of the risk.”

Godish, T. Formaldehyde and Building Related Illness, Journal of Environmental Health. Vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 116-121. 1981. The apparent association between building-related illness and formaldehyde contamination of indoor environments is reviewed. In addition to results of field investigations, emphasis is placed on formaldehyde’s toxicity, its possible carcinogenicity and apparent association with asthma. Specific problems associated with mobile homes, urea formaldehyde foam insulation, conventional wood-frame housing and non-residential buildings are also discussed. Definitive epidemiological studies are needed to determine whether a causal relationship between building-related illness and formaldehyde contamination of indoor environments exists. Information on which materials to avoid and what products are commonly made from them. Chlorine based, PBT and heavy metals are the focus. It also suggests the avoidance of Formaldehyde, other VOCs and Phthalates because they have an effect on the indoor air quality.

Halliday S.P (2003) Module 6: Ventilation and Cooling Strategies Sustainable Construction CPD Gaia Research, Edinburgh

Halliday S.P (2003) Module 14 Appraisal Tools and Techniques Sustainable Construction CPD Gaia Research, Edinburgh

Harte. J et al (1991) Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards U.Cal Berkeley. Has a useful alphabetical list of hazardous chemicals and their effects. This is introduced via principles of toxicology exposure and environmental risks and then categorised under 4 headings – metals, petrochemicals, radiation and pesticides.

Howieson S.G. (2005) Housing and Asthma, Taylor and Francis.
The UK has the highest prevalence of asthma symptoms in 13-14 year olds in the world. Over the past 25 years the incidence of asthma episodes has increased by a factor of three to four in adults and six in children. This book looks at what factors specific to the UK can be identified as key drivers, and more importantly, what can be done to either slow this increase or reverse the trend?

Hunting, E. Shelter: Documenting a personal quest for non-toxic housing. What Is Non-Toxic Housing? http://radio.weblogs.com/0119080/stories/
2003/01/30/whatIsNontoxicHousing.html . An explanation of ‘non-toxic housing’ as opposed to ‘toxic housing’. The article describes the reasons for indoor pollution and their effects. Hunting discusses Baubiology – the study of the relationship between architecture and nature – and lists Schneider’s 25 Principles.

Lange, John H. Has the Indoor Environment and Built Environment Started Changing Modern Health? Indoor + Built Environment. 11 (2006) 119-122
Looks at the effects of the indoor environment on human health. The strive for energy conservation is, in part, blamed for the increase in ‘sick building syndrome’. The report reminds us that it is the dose that makes the poison and that society wants the benefits of toxic chemicals without the toxic side effects. Combines factors of increased pollutants in the built environment and indoors with the life-style changes that have lead to some people spending as much as 80% of their time indoors. This combined approach is described as ‘urban toxicology’.

London Hazards Centre (1988) Toxic Treatments London Hazards Centre Trust, How long does it take? One of the earliest books to flag up the problem of timber treatment. Starting from a specific case study and then outlining (already in 1988) 10 years of denial of the issues by the timber products industry, this book lays out the risks and how the chemicals persist in the body, then demonstrates why they are not necessary and finishes with a section on decontamination.

McIntyre, D.A. 1980 Indoor Climate Applied Science Publishers Barking.
Mainly a text book for the technically competent. A bit thin on the chemical contaminants side – but does already flag up formaldehyde – and particularly chipboard – as an issue, including success in obtaining the reduction in its use in Denmark.

National Asthma Campaign Info Sheets www

Oie L (1998) The role of indoor building characteristics as exposure indicators and risk factors for development of bronchial obstruction in early childhood NTNU Trondheim

Paajanen L. et al (1994) Effect of Insulation Materials on the Bio-deterioration of Buildings VTT

Simonson C. J. (2000) Moisture, Thermal and Ventilation Performance of Tapanila Ecological House VTT

Singh J. Allergy Problems in Buildings Quay Books 1996

Thornton, Joe. (2000) Pandora’s Poison: Chlorine, Health and a New Environmental Strategy. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press Ltd,
Deals with the global accumulation of toxic chemicals. Evidence that organochlorine exposure causes health problems, incl. cancer. Proposes environmental policy to blame. Suggests phase out chlorine-based products & replacing with safe alternatives.

Spengler.J et al (2001) Indoor Air Quality Handbook McGraw-Hill
Highly technical but comprehensive textbook.

Sterling, Peter and Nicole Paquette. Toxic Chemical Exposure in Schools: Our Children At Risk. Vermont: VPIRG, March 1998. Findings of tests and surveys of several schools in Vermont area. It details the adverse health effects experienced by staff and pupils in schools where toxic chemical exposure was occurring. Common complaints were headaches and nausea. The report has useful tables showing the different sources of toxins within the school environment. The building materials category includes adhesive and caulking compounds, carpet, roofing materials, pressed wood products, drapery, floor and wall coverings, paints and stains and varnishes. Action suggested by the report includes a safe materials policy, enforced ventilation standards and co-ordinated purchasing of non-toxic alternatives.

Thornton, Joe. Environmental Impacts of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Building Materials. www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/ThorntonPVCSummmary.html
A briefing paper for the Healthy Building Network that details the hazards of PVC throughout its life. The bioaccumulation and toxicity of the additives of PVC, particularly phthalates, but also dioxins, vinyl chloride, metals and ethylene dichloride. By-products of PVC are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic, causing cancer, neurotoxicity and immune system suppression. These by-products are found in worryingly high concentrations in human breast milk. Thornton suggests the phasing out of PVC building materials.

World Health organisation (1992) Our Planet Our Health WHO, Geneva
Notable for its omissions – especially for the absence of anything significant relating indoor climate to health problems although there is a good section on product manufacture and industrial related effects.

Yu C and Crump D (2002) Digest 464 Part 1: VOC emissions from Building Products - Sources, testing & emission data Part 2: VOC emissions from Building Products - Control, evaluation and labelling schemes BRE

Yu C and Crump D (2003) IP12/03: VOC emissions from flooring adhesives BRE
 

Appendix E Useful Additional Contacts

Accociation for Environment Conscious Building (AECB) www.aecb.net/

American Lung Association Health House www.healthhouse.org

Building Air Quality www.baq1.com/

BuildingGreen.com Indoor Environment Quality
www.buildinggreen.com/menus/subtopics.cfm?TopicID=5

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) – Air Quality, Pollution, Chemicals, Statistics and Pollution
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/airquality/eu-int/eu-directives/paints-directive/index.htm

Envirodesic www.envirodesic.com/index.html

Environmental Health Perspectives http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/members/1999/suppl-3/465-468rylander/rylander-full.html

Environmental Protection Agency www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html

European eco-label http://ec.europa.eu/environment/index_en.htm

EU Sustainable Development Strategy http://ec.europa.eu/sustainable/welcome/index_en.htm

Greenpeace www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/toxics/polyvinyl-chloride/pvc-alternatives-database/

Health & Safety Executive www.hse.gov.uk/

Health Protection Agency www.hpa.org.uk/

Healthy Building Network www.healthybuilding.net/

Healthy Home & Workplace www.healthyhouse.com/

International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy http://www.ie.dtu.dk/

International Institute for Bau – Biologie www.bau-biologieusa.com/

International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate www.ie.dtu.dk:80/isiaq/

International Standards Organisation
www.iso.org
www.eota.be

National Green Specification for helpful advice and examples of environmental specification www.greenspec.co.uk

REACH http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/reach/reach_intro.htm

Royal Commission on Health and Pollution (RCEP) Study on Urban Environments, Well-being and Health www.rcep.org.uk/urbanenvironment.htm

Scotland’s Sustainable Development Strategy 2005 www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/12/1493902/39032

Scottish Building Standards Agency www.sbsa.gov.uk

SEDA - the premier NGO in Scotland for Ecological Design www.seda2.org

Select Committee on Science and Technology www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldsctech/21/4111706.htm

SEPA www.sepa.org.uk

Sustainable Development Directorate of the Scottish Executive www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/SustainableDevelopment

UNISON www.unison.org.uk/safety/doc_view.asp?did=181

U.S. EPA Toxics Release Inventory www.epa.gov/tri/

World Health Organisation – Air Quality Guidelines www.euro.who.int/air/activities/20050222_2

World Wildlife Fund www.wwf.org.uk
 

Appendix F Specification Notes

(1) VOCs
Volatile organic compounds are soluble and hence capable of causing emissions. Wetter products can thus release more VOCs. They vary according to their boiling points
VVOC (very volatile organic compounds): 0-500C
VOC (volatile organic compounds): 50-2500C
SVOC (semi-volatile organic compounds): 250-3800C
TVOC (total volatile organic compounds)

The German Environment Agency makes a recommendation that the total VOC (TVOC) concentration in interiors does not exceed 1-2mg/m3 internal air movement in the first year. In building related products, typical VOCs will be:
Aliphates: found in paints, adhesives, thinners, carpets
Aromates: products containing solvents: synthetic resin paints, adhesives, carpets, paints
Styrene: insulating materials, coatings, carpets, paints
Heterocyclene: synthetic resin paints, solvents, carpets
Terpenes: wood products, natural and alkyd resin paints, stove enamel
Aldehydes: drying oils, alkyd resins, linoleum floor coverings
Formaldehyde: wood and panel products, paints, urea formaldehyde foams, insulating materials, fillers, furniture
Ketones: water and solvent based products, eg paints, adhesives, strippers
Alcohols and esters of monovalent alcohols: water and solvent based products, eg paints, adhesives, strippers; polyurethane foams, filler compounds
Glycols: water based products, eg acrylic paints, adhesives, joint sealers; stove enamel, wood stains, dispersion paints, wood stains
Pyrrolidone derivatives: strippers, paints, water based paints
Trimeric isobutylenes: foam backed carpets, rubber products
Phthalates: plasticizers in latex and other paints, adhesives, varnishes, carpets and synthetic materials.
Biocides: timber preservative, leather, carpets
Flame retardants: carpets, furnishings, intumescent paints

(list taken from Hegger, Auch-Schwelk, Fuchs, Rosenkranz 2006 Construction Materials Manual: “Hazardous Substances” section by Alexander Rudolphi)

(2) enviroblock see www.masterblock.co.uk

(3) Floor paint, for sealing dusty concrete surfaces, a low VOC silicate masonry paint such as Volvox would be suitable http://www.earthbornpaints.co.uk/products/silicate/index.htm#primer

(4) Most additives will emit VOCs during the curing process. If applying a sealer or other coating to the floor, check that the curing compound is compatible with the floor finish. Also ensure there is sufficient ventilation during the curing process.

(5) Formaldehyde in construction materials: medium density fibreboard (MDF), hardboard, oriented Strand Board (OSB), particleboard and chipboard are all processed woods which often contain formaldehyde based resins as a binder or adhesive. Formaldehyde is considered a probable carcinogen even at low exposure levels. Exterior grade particleboard is manufactured from phenol resin; interior grade particle board is manufactured using urea-formaldehyde which is 10 times more toxic than phenol resin. However pure phenol formaldehyde is poisonous. Formaldehyde free versions of all of these products are available and should be specified.

Relatively small doses of formaldehyde can lead to irritation of the eyes, a dry throat and sleeping problems. They can also trigger allergies. Board materials containing formaldehydes will offgas slowly over several years. According to the World Health Organisation, there is sufficient evidence in humans (and animals) for the carcinogenicity of formaldehyde http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol88/volume88.pdf

Most countries have set recommended limits for formaldehyde in the indoor air. Germany, Canada and the Netherlands set the level at 0.1ppm, Other countries vary from targets of 0.05 to 0.4ppm. In the UK, the HSE seems to be mainly concerned with the effects of urea-formaldehyde in cavity walls. We could find no evidence in the UK of statutory controls on formaldehyde emissions for the indoor climate www.hse.gov.uk/lau/lacs/37-9.htm For a full breakdown of the guidelines for different countries, see Aldehydes by Thad Godish Ph.D, C.I.H. in Chapter 32 of Indoor Air Quality handbook, John Spengler, Jonathan Samet, John McCarthy, 2000.

See also: Breysse, P.A. 1984. Formaldehyde levels and accompanying systems associated with individuals residing in over 1000 conventional and mobile homes in the state of Washington in Berglund, B., T.Lindvall and J.Sundell (Eds). Indoor Air: Sensory and Hyperreactivity Reactions in Sick Buildings, Vol. 3, pp.403-408. Stockholm: Swedish Council for Building Research.

(6) Medite Ecologique is made from zero added formaldehyde giving a finished product which complies with the German directive of less than 0.1ppm. See www.medite-europe.com/en/products_ecologique.php

(7) The manufacture of the chemical PVC produces many toxic byproducts, including dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorines. Dioxins are also released when PVC is burnt. Increasingly PVC is becoming restricted. Countries such as Germany, Austria, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark have PVC restrictions in place. Low and Zero VOC adhesives are available and some styles can be loose laid, but the product is best avoided.

See Ross Spiegel and Dru Meadows. Green Building Materials. A Guide to Product Selection and Specification. 2006.
USA Environmental Protection Agency website item on PVC www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/vinylchl.html
Also see a good summary of the main problems areas of PVC at the NGS website http://www.greenspec.co.uk/html/design/pvcproblem.html

(8) Hodgson, A.T. 1998. Draft Final Report. Sacramento, CA: California Air Resources Board

(9) website contacts for flooring products:
linoleum www.forbo-flooring.co.uk
rubber www.nora.com, www.ryburnrubber.co.uk ,
www.berleburger.de/en,
cork www.corkfactory.com, www.apcork.co.uk/default.htm,
www.siestacorktile.com

(10) Visqueen make Zedex CPT which is a co-polymer thermoplastic which does not contain pitch, bitumen or PVC www.visqueenbuilding.co.uk/product_detail.asp?id=49&sid=142

(11) Most standard paints contain petroleum derivatives. Titanium dioxide is commonly used as a white pigment, according to NIOSH, titanium dioxide may cause lung fibrosis and is considered an occupational carcinogen. Paint products contain a variety of VOCs some of which do not dissipate for many months after application. ‘Low odour’ paints may have reduced VOCs but they can still give off harmful formaldehyde and acrolien. Even natural paints may emit natural VOCs.

As a guide, for general interior and exterior applications, specify water based latex based primers and paints with no aromatic hydrocarbons and a VOC content less than 10 grams a litre. For high impact locations such as door frames, use water based high performance acrylics instead of solvent based paints.

Some paints are designed to have very low VOC and reduced Titanium dioxide and are considered an improvement on standard acrylic emulsions. See Natural Building Technologies trade emulsion www.natural-building.co.uk

(12) There is now available a wide range of natural pigment paints which do not use titanium dioxide. These range from limewashes and lime paints, natural silicate paints, plant oil and tree resin emulsions and linseed oils. The majority are solvent free although some products may use naturally derived solvents such as alcohol and orange oil. The following list of manufacturers and suppliers should be considered:
BIOFA Villa Natura paints www.mikewye.co.uk and http://www.biofa.co.uk
Holkham Linseed paints www.holkhamlinseedpaints.co.uk
Auro www.auro.co.uk
The Danes use lime lye which bleaches and preserves the moisture regulating properties of wood. They also stock a variety of greener surface finishes such as varnishes, oils, and beeswax. http://uk.faxelud.dk

Suppliers:
Womersleys Ltd stock Aglaia natural paints, Beeck mineral paints, Buxton limewash www.womersleys.co.uk/acatalog/
The Green Shop stock Earthborn clay paints, Stuart Furby’s lime earth paints, Auro, Osmo and Holkham linseed paints www.greenshop.co.uk

(13) The health risk of mineral fibres is heightened where the fibres are not soluble in pulmonary fluid and which can accumulate over time. Legislation in Germany has classified mineral fibres with such properties as carcinogenic (Hegger, Auch-Schwelk, Fuchs, Rosenkranz 2006 Construction Materials Manual: “Hazardous Substances” section by Alexander Rudolphi)
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) www.iarc.fr
Identifies slag wool, rock wool, and fibreglass as possible carcinogens. Their use should be avoided in all situations where the fibres are exposed to the internal air environment (see also Ross Spiegel and Dru Meadows. Green Building Materials. A Guide to Product Selection and Specification. 2006)

(14) Flame Retardants: the World Wildlife Fund commissioned a study of 39 members of the European parliament. Blood samples were analysed for a total of 101 chemicals finding traces of DDT, PCBs; brominated flame retardants, phthalates and perfluorinated compounds (see http://www.wwf.org.uk/news/n_0000001187.asp)
The report, Chemical Check Up http://assets.panda.org/downloads/checkupmain.pdf, released at a press conference in Strasbourg also revealed that:
• Every person tested is contaminated with a cocktail of bio-accumulative, toxic chemicals;
• 76 chemicals from the 101 looked for were found in the blood of those tested;
• the highest number of chemicals found in any one person was 54, while the median number of chemicals detected was 41;
• 13 chemicals were found in every single person tested. These include chemicals banned in Europe over twenty years ago, as well as chemicals in widespread use today such as phthalates and perfluorinated compounds;
• HBCD, another flame retardant used in expanded polystyrene foam, textiles and upholstery, was found in one person: the first time this chemical has ever been found in human blood as far as WWF is aware.

The latest research from WWF can be obtained at www.wwf.org.uk/chemicals/science.asp

(15) Mastics: apart from linseed oil based putty and mastic, most tube extruded mastics are either plastic or bitumen based. The plastics usually contain polysulphide, silicone, polyurethane and various acrylic substances. Polyurethane mastics contain 10-60% phthalates. Plastics of polysulphide, polyurethane and polyacylates contain chlorinated hydrocarbons or flame retardants. Sealants will continue to outgas throughout their life. When interior sealants are being specified avoid those containing butyl rubber, neoprene, styrene butadiene rubber and nitride. Also avoid sealants with aromatic solvents, formaldehyde, mercury, lead, chromium and their compounds. The following sealants are more acceptable for indoor use if they cannot be avoided: oleoresinous, acrylic emulsion latex, polysulfide (small amounts of toluene vapours) and silicone (small amounts of xylene and other solvents) (see also Ross Spiegel and Dru Meadows. Green Building Materials. A Guide to Product Selection and Specification. 2006)

(16) see NBT Thermoplan hollow clay blocks www.natural-building.co.uk/thermoplan_ziegel_clay_blocks.htm

(17) Wood Preservatives: organic wood preservatives contain pesticides and fungicides. Whilst substances like DDT, PCP, Dieldrin and Lindane are largely prohibited, waterborne preservatives which are commonly used in building construction, include chromated copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal copper quartenary (ACQ), ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate (ACZA), ammoniacal coper arsenate (ACA), coper azole, copper citrate, permethrin. Under EC legislation, CCA is now restricted in buildings other than housing. Our first choice should always be to avoid preservatives by good design and the selection of suitable timber species. CKB salts (copper, chromium, boron) are used as preservatives in this country but are not allowed in Scandinavia. A typical product contains 31% copper sulphate; 1% copper oxide; 25% boric acid with Sodium dichromate used as a fixing aid. It is described as hazardous with the warnings “Harmful when brought into contact with the skin; toxic if swallowed; very toxic if inhaled; causes burns; irritates respiratory organs”

Where preservative is required then consider Boron based compounds, although treatment can only be carried out on green timber with a moisture content with a moisture content of over 50%. Other treatments are available see Visor Wood, they use a product made from sugarcanes www.kebonyproducts.com/
Wood Polymer Technologies describe in English the Visorwood process which carries the Nordic Swan ecolabel for “durable wood” http://ww2.wpt.no/index.cfm

For alternative products see http://www.greenspec.co.uk/html/product-pages/probor.php
Also see pages 433 -440 of Bjorn Berge, Ecology of Building Materials, 2000

(18) See W. Gene Tucker, Ph.D. Volatile Organic Compounds in Chapter 31 of Indoor Air Quality handbook, John Spengler, Jonathan Samet, John McCarthy, 2000

(19) Egger UK make what is described as an OSB with a formaldehyde free binder (E1 less than 0.03ppm). It is called Eurostrand OSB 4 Top, however it does use a polyurethane binder. See www.egger.co.uk/co-uk-eng/egger-co-uk-products-flooring-boards_9734.htm
Kunz, the German firm, used to make ‘Plysoc’ which was marketed as a formaldehyde free particleboard. This is no longer stocked in the UK. In Germany it is marketed under the trade name of ‘LivingBoard’and comes in two varieties ‘face’ and ‘classic’. It is described as a wood based panel and looks more like OSB than particleboard, but it is formaldehyde free. Contact details as follows: Jürgen Iber, Gebietsverkaufsleiter
Tel. : +49 (0) 7972 69145 email : juergen.iber@pfleiderer.com
www.pfleiderer.com

(20) Clay boards can be sourced from NBT at www.natural-building.co.uk or Construction Resources at http://constructionresources.com/default.asp , Fermacell board material at www.fermacell.co.uk/specifier_home.html

(21) Polystyrene is manufactured by the polymerization of styrene, creating expanded polystyrene (EPS) and extruded polystyrene (XPS). The finished product can have some unstable residues of monomers of styrene which may outgas. XPS, can also release small amounts of chlorofluorocarbons. When burnt, toxic fumes are given off. Also see page 152 of Bjorn Berge, Ecology of Building Materials, 2000

(22) Exposure to styrene will occur from breathing indoor air contaminated with styrene vapours from building materials, tobacco smoke and consumer products, like prepackaged food containers. Breathing styrene can affect the nervous system, and breathing high levels of styrene can lead to depression, concentration problems, tiredness and nausea. For more information see http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts53.html

(23) Hygroscopic insulants tend to be made from natural materials. Depending on the qualities of the material, further chemicals may be included in the finished product. Flame retardants are used in most of the products apart from wood fibre insulants. The following is a selection of some of these hygroscopic insulants:

Wood Fibre and cellulose based Insulants
Termotra make a wood fibre insulation that is blown into cavities, but requires to be dried. We understand that the flame retardant is ammonium sulphate www.termotra.se

Thermocell make a wood fibre insulation that can be blown dry, uses Ammonium Sulphate rather than Boron as a flame retardant. www.thermocell.dk

Vital Insulation batts (Vital 040) made from wood pulp and wood fibres, using a cellulose glue. Contains pH neutral boron as protection against rot and fire http://www.vitalfinland.fi, www.constructionresources.com/
Homatherm produce a number of wood fibre products, HolzFlex Mais is a flexible wood fibre insulation batt which uses ammonium sulphate as a flame retardant.

Homatherm also make a cellulose batt insulation from recycled newspaper and recycled jute sacking called flexCL 040. Uses boric acid as a flame retardant and Ammonium Sulphate as a hydrating agent. http://www.homatherm.com, www.constructionresources.com

Gutex wood fibre insulation boards. These products are also marketed by Construction resources under the name of Thermosafe and Thermowall www.gutex.de/en/index.html, www.constructionresources.com

Blown, sprayed or loose cellulose fibre is available and is treated with boron based fire retardants. Warmcell 100 is made in the UK and available from www.naturalbuilding.co.uk, www.naturalinsulations.co.uk. Termex cellulose insulation is a Finnish product www.termex.fi

Hemp and recycled products
Steico make a flexible hemp insulation batt called Steico canaflex and uses ammonium phosphate as a retardant. They also make a wood fibre insulation called Steicoflex. www.steico.de/index.php?start=02
Isonat is a hemp insulant mixed with recycled cotton fibres, treated with fire retardant.
Thermohemp is an all hemp insulant with sodium bicarbonate acting as the flame retardant

Wool Insulants
Thermafleece is treated with borax and a ‘natural fire proofing agent’. The wool is from UK sheep. Available from Second Nature www.secondnatureuk.com

You can also use New Zealand wool (preferably if you live in New Zealand) otherwise their website gives the fact that wool also absorbs formaldehyde, see www.woolbloc.co.nz/index.htm

(24) Ilonka A, TM Meerts, JJ van Zanden, EAC Luijks, I van Leeuwen-Bol, G Marsh, E Jakobsson , Å Bergman and A Brouwer. 2000. Potent Competitive Interactions of Some Brominated Flame Retardants and Related Compounds with Human Transthyretin in Vitro. Toxicological Sciences 56: 95-104. To quote from the report:
“The results presented in this study clearly demonstrate for the first time that hydroxylated brominated flame retardants of several different classes are able to bind to human transthyretin in vitro, some with extremely high potency, e.g., TBBPA and PBP. This is an important finding, as brominated flame retardants are used extensively at present for a large variety of applications and can be detected in wildlife and humans. The results of this paper thus indicate the possible capability of a large group of particularly brominated industrial chemicals to interfere with and potentially disrupt the thyroid hormone transport and metabolism.”
See www.ourstolenfuture.org/NewScience/behavior/2000ilonkaetal.htm

(25) TBS Elastomers make ‘ecoseal EP’ roofing membranes which use thermoplastic polypropylene, see www.tbselastomers.com
Firestone make ‘Ultraply TPO’ which is a thermoplastic polyolefin, see www.firestonebpe.com/roofing/ultraply/_en

(26) see section on acoustical ceilings, page 225 from Ross Spiegel and Dru Meadows. Green Building Materials. A Guide to Product Selection and Specification. 2006

(27) Foamed glass board insulation is made from crushed glass and carbon and has a high compressive strength www.foamglas.co.uk
Wood fibre boards are made by a number of companies, see www.pavatex.de and www.steico.com

(28) LSHF electrical cable is insulated with polyolefine insulation, is halogen free and low smoke under fire conditions so does not produce toxic fumes like PVC. See www.cse-distributors.co.uk/cable/2491B-6701B.htm

(29) Traditionally, treatment of dry rot (over the last 30 years at least) has necessitated the cutting back of all infected timber by about 1 metre (although BRE suggests a margin of approximately 400mm is in fact satisfactory). The affected walling is normally irrigated at closely spaced intervals and chemicals injected. Some phenolic solutions can migrate to the internal wall surface resulting in crystals of pentachlorophenol. These can dry in the air and cause a health hazard. Sometimes a ‘toxic box’ is formed around the infected area. However it is difficult to ensure that the fungal spores are contained only within this box. From an ecological viewpoint, the unnecessary use of chemicals should be avoided.
The Danes have developed a heat treatment system to eradicate dry rot. It is not suitable for wet rot. The complete building is enclosed in a covered scaffolding and hot air blowers applied. This exposes any infested construction (masonry and timber) to a temperature of 50ºC for a period of 16 hours. This will kill off any dormant dry rot spores hidden within the structure. The advantage of this process is that the whole building is treated and not simply those areas identified under survey. Also no chemicals are used and since the building is dried out, the risk of providing damp conditions for new timbers is avoided, reducing the need for further preservation. Heat treatment of dry rot is carried out in Denmark, Norway and Germany (see http://cordis.europa.eu/itt/itt-en/01-2/innov02.htm
In the UK, contact www.thermolignum.com/Rot_Eradication.html
Also Research paper by David Watt, Belinda Colston and Duncan Spalding: Assessing the impact of chemical treatments on the health of buildings and their occupants. December 2000 Vol 3 No13, Centre of Conservation Studies, School of Architecture, De Montfort University. www.rics.org/NR/rdonlyres/35B81AFF-1030-4ACA-9DDF-
12897DB0661E/0/assessing_the_impact_of_chemical_treatments
_on_the_health_of_buildings_20001201.pdf

(30) Rothounds from Hutton and Rostron Environmental Investigations Ltd www.handr.co.uk/rothounds.htm

(31) Boron and Boron rods and paste comes in many forms. See http://www.dryrot.biz/treat_decay_diydoc.htm

(32) Natural Building Technologies provide a wood fibre board for internal use. However not every external wall will be suitable. Any walls should already be dry and vapour permeable. The existing stone wall is initially made flat with a clay render, then the woodfibre board is directly fixed to the wall and then finished with a lime render. It is not suitable for basement conditions or in areas of high exposure. (NBT also supply a range of wood fibre boards for a variety of purposes) See www.natural-building.co.uk

(33) Hardwood flooring is available from Scottish forests. The Association of hardwood Sawmillers have an excellent website locating the main suppliers www.ashs.co.uk/PageAccess_id_34.htm

(34) Natural vegetable oils can be used to protect light coloured floors. The oil provides a liquid and dirt resistant surface, but the wood is still allowed to breath, see Faxe A/S at http://uk.faxelud.dk/Default.asp?Action=Details&Item=221
See also note (12) for a list of suppliers who also stock wax floor products.

(35) VOC emissions from taping compounds and the plasterboard can be minimised when they are encapsulated with paint. See page 223 from Ross Spiegel and Dru Meadows. Green Building Materials. A Guide to Product Selection and Specification. 2006

(36) Living Roofs is an independent organisation giving advice and information on green roofs www.livingroofs.org/index.html
Also see www.mclawroofing.co.uk/prod-green.html, www.greengridroofs.com, www.bauder.co.uk/data/usercontentroot/systems/
Green%20Roof%20Systems/default.asp

(37) A study of 51 renovated German homes found, 2 years after renovation, that a number of “new” VOCs were being released, including longifolene, phenoxyethanol and butydiglycolacetate. These compounds, instead of being released in large quantities shortly following application of the surface coating, were emitted in smaller quantities at first but continued to be released at a steady rate over much longer periods of time.

From Lance A. Wallace Ph.D. Assessing Human Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds. Chapter 33 of Indoor Air Quality handbook, John Spengler, Jonathan Samet, John McCarthy, 2000. The German study is from Reitzig, M. et al: Voc emissions after building renovations: Traditional and less common indoor air contaminants, potential sources, and reported health complaints. 1998

(38) Alternative floor coverings to vinyl:

Rubber Flooring:www.nora.com, www.ryburnrubber.co.uk, http://www.berleburger.de/en
Linoleum: www.forbo-flooring.co.uk
Cork: www.corkfactory.com, www.apcork.co.uk/default.htm, www.siestacorktile.com/

(39) At the time of writing, we have been unable to fully clarify the environmental and health risk of using Boron. Bjorn Berge has advised that “boric salt and borax are both looked at as a bad environmental choice by Norwegian authorities. This does not mean that they are illegal, but there is an effort to remove them from the industrial material-cycles. Also they are placed on the OBS-list (250 substances dangerous to environment and health to give special attention) (see Norwegian Pollution Control Authority at www.sft.no )The Swan-mark (the scandinavian alternative to Nature plus) are completely banning products with boron”

(40) See Ivor Davies, Bruce walker, James Pendlebury: Timber Cladding in Scotland; Arca 2002

(41) British Gypsum make “gyproc cove adhesive” for fixing plaster coves. See www.british-gypsum.bpb.co.uk/products/plasterboard___accessories/
gyproc_decorative_products/gyproc_cove_adhesive.aspx

(42) Water based flame retardants are available from a number of manufacturers. We cannot vouch for their chemical contents. See www.bollomfireprotection.co.uk/index.html, www.albicoatings.co.uk/index.php

(43) Clay plasters can be obtained from a number of suppliers:
Tierrafino plasters tend to be smooth and come in a range of colours http://www.tierrafino.com
Claytec base and finish clay plasters from NBT at www.natural-building.co.uk
For Lime and clay products, contact the Scottish Lime Centre at www.scotlime.org, also Masons Mortar at www.masonsmortar.co.uk

(44) LECA (lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate) is available from Claytec at www.claytek.co.uk/leca_home.htm
Also foamed cellular glass aggregate is available with the trade name “Hasopor” from www.hasopor.com

(45) GGBS or Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag is available from most concrete suppliers, or directly from “Civil and Marine” (a Hanson Company) at www.civilandmarine.co.uk. The Quarry Products Association has more information on slag and it’s uses, see www.qpa.org/prod_slag01.htm

(46) Self finished polished floors. See ‘superfloor’ as laid in the Kelvingrove museum by Clyde Valley Drilling www.cvdltd.co.uk/surfaceprep/htcsuperfloor.htm
Also Contech UK at http://contechuk.co.uk/index.htm

(47) Gypsum based self levelling screed, made by Lafarge Gyvlon www.gyvlon-floors.co.uk

(48) Mill finish aluminium gutters, available from Alumasc at www.alumasc-exteriors.co.uk/rainwater/Systems.aspx?systemid=4&section=finishes and from Marley at www.marleyalutec.co.uk

(49) Geotextile membrane such as “Lotrac” are available from Don and Low in Angus, see www.lotrak.com

(50) Dense deafening or ‘pugging’ may be of the following types –
Traditional ash (usually 75 mm); 2-10 mm limestone chips (60 mm) also comes bagged with the trade name “quietex”, available in 1 ton pallets from Shierglas Quarry, Blair Atholl PH16 5LL tel 01796 481325; 2-10 mm whin aggregate (60 mm); or dry sand (50 mm).

(51) Whilst sheet vinyl itself does offgas formaldehyde slightly (<(8-30µg/h)/m2 it emits less than particleboard (1-400), plywood (5-1,000), wood veneers (10-12,000). Information from: Volatile Organic Compounds by Gene Tucker Ph.D, in Chapter 31 of Indoor Air Quality handbook, John Spengler, Jonathan Samet, John McCarthy, 2000.

(52) HOMATHERM flexCL 040 is a batt insulation made from cellulose and recycled jute sacking. It can be used in cavity wall construction provided the cavity is ventilated. See Construction resources www.constructionresources.com/default.asp

(53) For the effect of brain development on mice, see: Viberg, H., et al., 2004, Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, Vol 17, Issue 2, pp61-65

(54) For flame retardants in sediment see: Kierkegaard, A. et al., 2004, Environmental Science & Technology, Vol 38, Issue 12, pp3247-3253

(55) For flame retardants in british birds see: ENDS report 349, Feb 2004, pp14-15.

(56) The author finds that simple nailing of skirtings and facings is often easier to dismantle than screwing, as screws can rust and screw heads become blocked with filler and paint making dismantling difficult. Floorboards if tongued and grooved will invariably be damaged unless they are screwed or secured by countersunk timber straps.

(57) Holzweg floor adhesive is a natural resin and latex adhesive for glueing cork tiles, linoleum and carpeting onto floor surfaces such as cement screed (but unsuitable for epoxy-resin screeds) see Construction Resources www.constructionresources.com

(58) For more information on the appropriate conditions for asthma see: Howieson, Stirling, 2005 Housing and Asthma, Spon Press
 

Appendix G Acknowledgements

The research presented in this guide was prepared by Gaia Architects, Gaia Research and John Gilbert Architects.

The authors would like to thank the following people for their invaluable contribution to developing this guide:

Steering Group
Dr. Fionn Stevenson, (Department of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University & Scottish Ecological Design Association)
Jim Mitchell, (Architecture Policy Unit, Scottish Executive)
Dr. Kenneth Anderson, (Respiratory Medicine, Crosshouse Hospital, Kilmarnock)
Amanda MacRitchie, (Royal incorporation of Architects in Scotland)
Richard Atkins, (Chairman of SEDA)

Advisory Group
Bjorn Berge, (Architect, Gaia Group, Norway)
Chris Herring, (Chairman AECB)
Professor Emeritus Peter Schmid, (Professor of Architecture, TU/e Eindhoven University of Technology/ECOHB Labelling Group)
Paul Woodville, (Architype)
Chris Butters Architect, Gaia Oslo and Oslo University

Research assistance
Samuel Foster, (Gaia Architects)
Walter Unterrainer, (Architect, Vorarlberg Austria)

Production Assistance
John Gunn, (Ralph Ogg and partners) - Cost Advice
Matthew Fox, (Gaia Architects)
Paul Jones, (Gaia Research)
Melanie Goode, (John Gilbert Architects)

The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding from the Scottish Executive’s Sustainable Action Grant that made this guide possible.

Author web links
Gaia Architects and Gaia Research. www.gaiagroup.org
John Gilbert Architects. www.johngilbert.co.uk

• Note:
  It is the responsibility of the reader to ensure that designs comply with current regulations.
• The details shown are for demonstration purposes only, and are not intended as proposed working drawings.
  
• The views expressed in this publication are entirely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
  views of the Scottish Executive or SEDA.
• The Authors have made every attempt to ensure that the text is accurate at the time of publication, but can not guarantee this.
  
• All photographs and illustrations have been included for image purposes only and no products shown or implied should be construed as specifically recommended for inclusion or avoidance in any particular circumstance.
• This guide is wholly independent and has received no commercial sponsorship of any kind.

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